Formation of Korean Film Industry
under Japanese Occupation
Noh, Kwang Woo (nkw88@hotmail.com)
1. Introduction
The Korean term for film, cinema, or motion picture is younghwa, which comes from Japanese eiga. These two words are the same Chinese character but pronounced differently. On the other hand, the term hwaldong sajin, which corresponds to motion picture literally and sometimes means film itself, has been once used. To see hwaldong sajin implies to see a spectacle, an attraction, and to experience new cultures, while to see younghwa means to see or to enjoy (narrative) cinema. As narrative cinema has developed, hwaldong sajin is not used anymore and the experience of hwaldong sajin is absorbed into the experience of younghwa. In late nineteenth century, when cinema was invented and introduced to Korea, the colonization of Korea by Japan was taking place. Before Japanese occupation, usually Western civilization was introduced through China, and, if this apparatus came through China, Korean term would be jonyoung which corresponded to dianying. Or, if it came directly from Western countries, Korean would use different term for cinema.
Although Korean film historians have different opinions of when film was first introduced to Korea, and by whom, it might be between 1897-1898 that film was exhibited first and restrictedly to Koreans. It was 1903 that the first motion picture show was opened in Korea. Also it is when the exclusive occupation of Korea by Japan was strengthened through Qing-Japanese war (1894-1895) and Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905). After Qing-Japanese War, Korea became substantially colonized and officially annexed by Japan in 1910 despite of resistance of Korean people. Before Sino-Japanese war on 1937, Japanese imperialism mainly focused on transformation of Korea to food-supplying place for stabilizing retail price - especially of rice - of Japanese market. By this imperialism, Japanese government could appease working class and accelerate the industrialization, while Korea suffered from suppressing the moment of internal development of her own. Although development of capitalism in Korea was delayed, people¡¯s curiosity about newly introduced culture, including cinema, was increasingly amplified and could induce the import of foreign film and, though opportunistic and speculative, investment for Korean cinema by some Japanese traders.
Wimal Dissanayake wrote that the imbricated questions of nationalism and colonialism are central to the cinematic discourse in Asian countries. According to him, the concept of national cinema can be analyzed at two levels: the textual and the industrial. At the textual level the uniqueness of a given cinema can be examined in terms of content, style, and indigenous aesthetics, while at the industrial level the relationship between cinema and industry can be in terms of production, distribution, and exhibition. History of Korean national cinema during colonialism was also a process of a struggle to construct content, style, and indigenous aesthetics as well as to establish its own film industry.
On considering main industrial term - production, distribution, and exhibition - and important moment of cinema, the main periods of history of Korean cinema under Japanese occupation can be divided as following:
1897 - 1909. Introduction of foreign film. In this period, foreign films were introduced by Western and Japanese companies. Western style theaters were built for mass entertainment. And cinema was considered as an attraction.
1910 - 1918. Establishment of distribution and exhibition by Japanese. In this period, after the first movie theater, Kodungyonyekwan(1910) was built and Shin Munhwa Undong(New Culture movement), including literature and drama, was processed by Korean new generation. The making of Kino drama at yonswaekuk in next stage was based on this situation.
1919 - 1922. From Kino drama to silent feature film. In 1919, Kim Do-san, who leaded Shinkukjwa, one of New Drama groups, made the first Korean Kino drama Uiligeog guto (The Fight for Justice) After Uiligeog guto, other New Drama movement groups began to make Kino dramas.
1923- 1925. Competition between Japanese and Korean companies. In this period, silent feature films began to be made. In 1922, Kim Do-san died not to complete his first feature film Guggyeong (The Border), which was opened incomplete. Some Japanese merchants built motion picture companies, and later Koreans who worked at those companies left companies and established their own production company.
1926 - 1934. Boom of Korean silent filmmaking. In 1926, Arirang directed by Na Woon-kyu, emerged as the first nationalistic cinema that established national style, content, and aesthetics. Many Korean and Japanese production companies were established and were closed.
1935 - 1937. Development of talkie and big studio system. In 1935, Chunhyangjeon (The story of Chun-hyang) was made again as the first sound film in Korea, and big companies with relatively good equipment and sufficient capital could make the advent of sound film possible.
1938 - 1941. Strengthening Japanese regulation of film. The outbreak of Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese control to Korea was increasingly strengthened.
1942 - 1945. Decline of Korean cinema. Japanese government decided to integrate film distribution and production companies both in Japan and Korea. So, a number of Korean distribution and production companies were forced to be integrated into one distribution and one production company, which distributed and produced military propaganda films
From the introduction of film (1897-1909) to establishment of exhibition and distribution (1910-1918), foreign force including Japan led and ruled Korean cinema. After 1919, although Korean filmmakers did not succeed in overcoming Japanese dominance and influence, some of them had been continuously struggled to establish national cinema. Through the struggle and development, and also the cultural difference between Korea and Japan, younghwa could be constructed as something different from eiga.
My statement is concentrated on formation of Korean film industry - exhibition, distribution, and production - under Japanese occupation. The basic structure, customs, and characteristics - the exclusion of autonomous inflow of capital from distribution and exhibition to production, and overemphasis on filmmakers as artist -of Korean film industry were formed mainly in this period, and have continued and partly influenced till now. Also, because the process of national cinema corresponds to the formation of national film industry and national film market as its (economical) base, it is necessary to take into account of film industry itself.
2. Formation of film industry
(1) Japanese dominance in exhibition and distribution
Before 1919, film was intermittently introduced by foreign visitors like Button Holmes in 1899, a foreign businessman, Asthouse, in 1898, and company, the Hansung Electricity Company, in 1903. Since Hyupyulsa was built as Royal Theater in 1902, some nontraditional theaters like Kwangmudae (1907), Yeonheungsa (1907), Jangansa (1907) were built for mass entertainment. In 1910, there also were Osungjwa, Kyongsungjwa, and Kaesungjwa at Namchon, where Japanese lived, and Dansungsa, Jangansa, Yonhungsa in Pukchon, in Seoul. In 1910, Kodungyonyekwan opened as the first movie theater and then exhibition business substantially began. Movie theaters like Daejungkwan (1912), Hwangkumkwan (1913), Umikwan (1916), and Chosun Kukjang (1922) were built. In 1918, Dansungsa was renewed from showplace to movie theater. Umikwan, Dansungsa, and Chosun Kukjang were for Korean viewers and the other movie theaters were for Japanese.
But the owners of all movie theaters were Japanese and they earned all profit of exhibition. However, because they had no motivation for making films in Korea, they did not invest their profit in film production. Only Dansungsa was managed by Korean businessman, Park Sung-pil from 1918 and, although he was not the owner of the theater, he could personally sponsor Kim Do-san to make Kino drama Uiligeog guto (The Fight for Justice)(1919). In 1925, the boom of opening local theaters was followed, which corresponded to the expansion of scale of show business and, in 1926, according to the statistics of the Department of Bibliography, Bureau of Police, the Office of Chosun governor-general, there were 50 theaters in Korea. The number of theaters was increased to 96 until 1935 and, among them, 39 were movie theaters.
On the market share, Japanese films were 69%, foreign films 27%, and Korean films 4% in 1935. The share of foreign films - mainly from Europe and U.S - was about 60% in 1933. The change of market share between Japanese films and foreign films not only corresponded to the increase of Japanese film industry but also resulted from restriction of foreign film on the same year. And, although Korean viewers preferred foreign films to Japanese films, Japanese owners of theaters earned benefit from the exhibition and scarcely did the benefit return to capital for filmmaking but individually accumulated.
On the import of films, in 1900s and 1910s, Yoshizawa Company exported Japanese films to Korea, while George Allen Company, G.H. Morris, and G. Taylor imported Western films. In 1918, Park Seung-pil contracted to Tenkatsu, a production company in Japan, for film supply. In 1920s, distribution network from Japanese production companies to movie theaters in Seoul was established. Hwangkumjwa (or Hwangkumjwa) was related with Shochiku, Heerakkwan with Nitkatsu, Daejungkwan with TeiKine, and Joongangkwan with Makino. This network guaranteed the stability of profit for movie theater owners and the supplementary profit for production companies.
There was no Korean film import company until Lee Ki Se built Kishin Yanghaeng in 1927. Before Kishin imported films from MGM, Paramount, and United Artists, there were 12 Japanese import companies. Kishin was the first and only one Korean company that imported foreign films until Dongyang Film Co.Ltd, began to import films from France and Italy in 1929. Korean import companies increased to four companies that also managed to produce films - Kishin, Koryo Film Company, Chon-Il, Kumkangsa - until 1937. On the other hand, Japanese companies decreased to five companies - Donghwa Sangsa, Kyongsung Jisa, Kukkwang film Company, Sam-Il Sanghoe, Hwanyoung Film Company. Usually, these import and distribution companies were production companies at the same time. Because they did not have enough capital to reproduce film and were inferior to movie theaters, and even the market for their films were uncertain, only import of foreign films guaranteed their stabilized profit.
2) Korean challenges in production
The period between 1919 and 1931, which was almost coincident with the rise of Korean silent cinema, was relatively appeasement conjuncture on the global scale between World War I and World War II, which inevitably influenced Japan and Korea. After the end of World War I, in 1919, March 1 nationwide demonstration occurred in Korea to protest Japanese military oppression (Mudan Jongchi) and Japan changed colonial policy from military oppression to relative appeasement, cultural domination (Munhwa Jongchi). By this turn, cultural nationalism, which emphasized education and enlightenment to people, and national capital like Kyongsung textile rose in colonial Korea. Also Korean news papers like Dong Ah Ilbo and Chosun Ilbo were established in 1920. This energetic situation was combined with New Culture Movement that had been processed in literature and drama since early 1910s.
From 1919, when Kim Do-san, a leader of Shinkukjwa, made a Kino drama, Uligeog guto (The Fight for Justice), to 1922, when Kim Do-san died not to complete Guggyeong (The Border), short films like Kino drama, newsreel, and short documentary were produced. Kim Do-san produced the Kino drama to overcome his difficulty of management of Shinkukjwa, and Uiligeog guto was a big hit. Just as, for Uiligeog guto, Park Sung-pil, the Korean manager of Dansungsa supported Kim Do-san to produce, Korean capital and New Drama groups like Shinkukdan, Munyedan, and Hyokshindan led the production of Kino dramas. Usually cast of Kino drama were Koreans and staff were Japanese except Munyedan¡¯s Jigi (A Truly Good Friend)(1920), of which Lee Pil-woo was the first Korean cinematographer.
The success of Kino drama inspired Japanese show businessmen to produce films for Korean market and from 1923, Japanese capital involved in production of Korean film and the competition, struggle, or association among Korean filmmakers, Japanese and Korean businessmen were intensified. In 1923, Hayakawa Matsujiro, the manager of Hwangkumkwan, built Dong-A Cultural Association, and produced and exhibited Chunhyangjeon (the Story of Chun-hyang) at Hwangkumkwan. Although Kim Do-san¡¯s Guggyeong was produced in 1922 but opened as an incomplete film, the first completed popular film was Chunhyangjeon. The success of this film provoked Hayakawa to produce more films like Biryonui kok (The Song of Sad Love)(1924), Towa Ku (Rabbit and Turtle)(1925), and Heungbuwa Nolbu (Hungbu and Nolbu)(1925). And, then, Pusan Chosun Kinema Co, Ltd., which was the first film company built in Korea and equipped with production studio by Japanese gun traders, produced Haeui Pikok (The Sad Song of Sun)(1924), Unyeongjeon (The Story of Unyeong)(1924), Amgwang (The Light in Darkness)(1924), and Chonui yongung (The Local Hero)(1924). Generally these two Japanese companies employed Korean cast and director and Japanese cinematographer. Yoon Paek Nam, Na Woon-Kyu, Ahn Jong-hwa, who were the first important Korean filmmakers, emerged as employees of Pusan Chosun Kinema. On the other hand, after accumulating the experiences of fillmaking by Kino drama, Dansungsa organized newly Motion Picture Unit, which completed the first sports documentaty, Chonsun yeoja Olimpic Daehoe (National women¡¯s Olympics)(1924) and Janghwa Hongryonjeon (The Story of Janghwa and Hongryon)(1924), which was the first film that was completed by Korean cast and staff. Also, the other Korean filmmakers tried to build their own companies like Paek Nam production, which produced Shimchungjeon (The Story of Shimchung)(1925), Koryo Kinema that did Gaechokja (A Pioneer)(1925), Koryo Film Production that did Ssangokru (Twin Jade Pavillion)(1925), but their deficiency in capital forced them out of business. On the contrary, Japanese production companies had enough capital, but they also suffered from deficiency of Korean actors, actresses, and directors and their goal to get stable profit prevented them from investing in Korean filmmaking.
After Dong-A and Pusan Chosun Kinema were closed one after another in 1925 and 1924, Chosun Kinema Production, whose owner was Yodo, another Japanese businessman who sold hats, produced 6 films, including Na Woon-kyu¡¯s Arirang (1926), the first Korean nationalistic cinema, during 1926-1927. Na Woon-kyu , the most important filmmaker in the history of Korean early cinema, directed four films, Arirang (1926), Pung-Un-A (A Soldier of Fortune)(1926), Deuljwi (The Field Mouse)(1927), Geumbung-eo (The Golden Fish)(1927) at Chosun Kinema Production. But the profit of Deuljwi and Geumbung-eo was less than expected, Yodo did not trust Na Woon-kyu any more, and then Na Woon-kyu and his Korean and Japanese colleagues left the Chosun Kinema Production. Again, Park Sung-pil supported Na Woon-kyu to organize his own company, Na Woon-kyu Production on 1927 and Na Woon-kyu produced and directed five films, Jal issgeola (Farewell)(1927), Oknyeo (1928), Salang-eul chaj-aseo (Looking for Love)(1928), Sanai (A Tough Guy)(1928), Beong-eoli Samryong (A deaf, Sam-ryong)(1928). The failure of Bongori Samryong made Na Woon-kyu Production collapse. After his production was closed, though he did not organize his own production company, Na Woon-kyu continued his directing and acting at other production company until his death, 1937.
Despite the deficiency of fund, small companies scrambled for speculative profit and competition among small companies was later increasingly intensified, and this phenomenon - deficiency of fund and scrambling -was repeated in 1950s, 1960s, and even 1980s. During the boom of Korean silent cinema, 1926-1934, twenty eight companies were closed after making just one film, eight after two, four after three, one after five, one after six, and totally forty companies were established and closed soon. The companies, which continued relatively longer and produced more films than any others, were supported by theater - Dong-A was related to Hwangkumkwan, and Dansungsa supported Kim Do-san, its own Motion Picture Unit, and Na Woon-kyu -or funded by other capital like gun trading (Pusan Chosun Kinema) and hat shop (Chosun Kinema Production). Among them, only Dansungsa functioned as a national capital for filmmaking, even though Park Sung-pil was not the owner.
Because of the absence of stable distribution-exhibition for Korean silent film, reputation and stardom of some filmmakers like Na Woon-kyu or Lee Gyu-hwan were taken into account by investors. In this strict situation, individual gift was exploited and personal devotion to cinema was required, which resulted in Korean filmmakers¡¯ strong pride as an ¡®artist¡¯. And through the confusion, some productions like Kishin tried to stabilize their management by importing foreign films. Import of foreign films was almost the only stable earning for production company, and this co-business of production and import recurred in late 1960s and, through 1970s, struggle for import of films finally led to de facto movie cartel.
Through the rise and fall of production companies, big companies with relatively well-quipped studio and stable capital emerged in mid 1930s. In 1933, after he saw Western talkie film, Lee Pil-woo, the first Korean cinematographer, invented P.K.R sound machine, which was appropriated by Kyongsung Film Studio. Kyongsung Film Studio produced Chunhyangjeon (The Story of Chun-hyang), the first Korean talkie film in 1935. Kyongsung Film Studio, Chosun Joongang Film Company, Koryo Film Company, and Hanyang Film Co. Ltd were already equipped with recording system and film development system. In 1935 Chosun Film Co., Chongku Film Company, and Sungbong Film Company built with big studio and enough capital to produce talkie films. Kishin, which were Co-business Company of production and import of foreign films, produced talkie Shimchungjeon (The Story of Shimchung)(1937), of which one reel returned from Russia in 2000 and was the oldest film reel among the preserved films in Korea. Among those companies, Kyongsung were closed after exhibiting Na Woon-kyu¡¯s Last picture Omongnyo (1937). But rest of the companies maintained and expanded their scales of companies.
From 1935, although the number of films did not increase, or even reduced to 5 in 1937, on account of big cost for sound equipment and studio, production companies which were capable to invest, continued and, in some case, associated with Japanese production companies. In 1935, all film companies with import of foreign films were struck by restriction of foreign films on 1935 and prohibition of foreign films on 1937, when Sino-Japanese War. Sungbong associated with Shinko and produced Nagune (The Journey)(1937) and Kunyonghyolcha (Military Train)(1938) with Toho. Koryo Film Company contracted with Shochiku to produce two films per year and co-produced Choi In-kyu¡¯s Sueoblyo (Tuition) (1940). Dong Ah Film Company, associated with Shinko, produced militarist film Jiwonbyeong (The Volunteer Soldier)(1941)
From 1937 to 1942, although these associations with Japanese companies and co-production of military expansionist films increased, some filmmakers still made Korean national cinema, which was adapted from Korean literature and represented social reality. But, a series of Japanese regulation policies made it impossible for Korean filmmakers to produce national cinema. In 1940, Chosun Motion Picture Ordinance was promulgated. The Ordinance regulated the industry to change from registration system to permission system for establishment of film business, to force propaganda film show, and to prohibit import of foreign films. Next, Chosun Association of Motion Picture Productions was organized and all film production companies were forced to join in the Association. 1n 1941, raw film supply was reduced because it was considered as military resources. In 1942, all distribution and production companies were forced to integrate each into Chosun Film Distribution Company and Chosun Motion Picture Company. In the same year, the Office of Chosun governor-general settled Film Planning and Examining Committee, which controlled Chosun Motion Picture Company. In 1943, Korean language was prohibited in Korean talkie film.
About this era, Joseph Anderson and Donald Richie wrote, ¡°For the first time Korean films were produced under fully adequate production conditions, and despite the fact that the company was Japanese controlled, the films themselves - feature, news, and cultural pictures - were all Koreans, or at least as Korean as they could be.¡± But they overlooked that Koreans themselves had been already building big studios and developing their own national cinema before integration to Chosun Motion Picture Company. Also, they did not refer to the fact that some Korean companies were forced to transfer their capital to Chosun Motion Picture Company. Chosun Motion Picture Company produced only nine films during 1942-1945 because raw films were not sufficient.
3. Conclusion
Since film had been introduced to Korea, Korea had functioned as a supplementary market for Japanese film industry until the end of World War II. Under dominance of Japanese capital on production, distribution and exhibition, Korean cinema had struggled to survive as a business and develop as an art. The production part had been not organically related with distribution and exhibition part, and filmmakers suffered from deficient fund and were sometimes required to devote as an ¡®artist.¡¯ The accumulation of capital in production sector, which might continuously process unless the forced integration to Chosun Motion Picture Company, was obstructed. The structure of industry, and the relative instability of production capital, had lasted till early 1990s.The instability of production capital forced some big production companies to demand the protection of government. The role of Korean government was overemphasized and the change of film policy, with too conservative and inconsistent censorship, influenced seriously the production part.
As the combination between government and some big production companies was strengthened, a barrier to the field and regulation was intensified and small companies, which were too small to survive in the field, faced crises constantly. As lots of small companies had been closed and the cartel of big companies, which stressed on import of foreign films rather than making films, was formed, lots of films were lost and not preserved systematically. The loss of lots of classical films made it difficult to study the history of Korean cinema.
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